A recent geoarchaeological study has clarified the origins of Egypt's Karnak Temple complex, one of the most significant religious centers of ancient Thebes. Published in the journal Antiquity on October 6, 2025, the research reconstructs the transformation of the Karnak area over more than 3,000 years, showing how the site evolved from a small river island into a major temple complex. The study was conducted by scientists from the University of Southampton (UK) and Uppsala University (Sweden), who analyzed 61 sediment cores and thousands of pottery shards collected within and around the temple.
The analysis indicates that the Karnak site was frequently flooded by the Nile and unsuitable for habitation before approximately 2520 BCE. The elevated land that formed the initial island, about 72 meters above sea level, provided a stable foundation for the earliest settlement and temple construction. Archaeological evidence suggests that human activity at the site began during the Old Kingdom period (around 2591–2152 BCE), with active construction taking place around 2300–1980 BCE. Luminescence dating of sediment cores, some reaching depths of up to 11.65 meters, confirmed the sequence and timing of river system changes.
Over the centuries, shifting branches of the Nile allowed the temple complex to expand. One significant finding was that the eastern branch of the Nile, previously considered minor, was in fact well-defined and possibly larger than the western branch, which had received more attention in earlier research. The study also documented evidence of deliberate infilling of the western channel around 1540 BCE, with builders adding 3.6 meters of sand to accelerate sediment accumulation and stabilize the ground.
The research also highlights a meaningful connection between the temple's location and ancient Egyptian creation mythology. Old Kingdom texts describe the creator god emerging as a mound from the "primordial waters." The natural island on which Karnak was built was the highest ground in the area, surrounded by water, and its selection as the temple site likely reflected these cosmological ideas. By the Middle Kingdom period (around 1980–1760 BCE), the construction on land appearing as floodwaters receded would have visually reinforced the concept of the "first land" rising from the primeval ocean.
The team is now extending its survey across the entire Luxor floodplain to better understand how landscape and hydrology contributed to the formation of Thebes as a religious center. This study clarifies not only the origins and development of Karnak Temple but also the dynamic interaction between humans and their natural environment in ancient Egypt.